Morality & Ethics Essay

J. M. FINNIS: Rules made, as per regulative legitimate guidelines, by a determinate and viable position (itself recognized and standard comprised as an organization by lawful principles) for a ‘complete’ network, and buttressed by sanctions as per the standard guided specifications of adjudicative foundations. [1] NATURALISTS ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: A discerning requesting of things which concern the benefit of everyone, proclaimed by whoever is accused of the consideration of the network. [2] SOCIOLOGISTS ROSCOE POUND: Law is in excess of a lot of unique standards, it is additionally a procedure of adjusting clashing interests and protecting the fulfillment of the greatest needs with the base of erosion. [3] WHAT IS MORALITY? No single definition can be offered to depict what ethical quality is, yet by and large profound quality can be comprehended when in doubt endorsing between what's up and what's going on. It could likewise mean an estimation of the adequate and unsuitable standard of a given society. Some save terms good and indecent just for the domain of sexuality and utilize the words moral and deceptive rather than the word moral while examining how the business and expert networks ought to carry on towards their individuals or toward the general population. [4] RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAW AND MORALITY 1. The presence of uncalled for laws demonstrates that profound quality and law are not indistinguishable and don't match. 2. The presence of laws that serve to shield fundamental qualities, law and ethical quality can cooperate. 3. Laws can state what obvious offenses consider off-base and culpable. 4. Laws administer lead in any event mostly through dread of discipline. 5. Ethical quality can impact the law as in it can give the motivation to making entire gatherings of indecent races illicit. 6. Law can be an open articulation of profound quality which systematizes in an open manner the fundamental standards of direct which a general public acknowledges. [5] PUBLIC PROSECUTOR v MOHD ROMZAN BIN RAMLI[6] BRIEF EXPLANATION ON THE CASE: Mohd Romzan receptacle Ramli was charged under the offense of inbreeding under the arrangement of segment 376A of the Penal Code-an individual is said to submit interbreeding on the off chance that the person in question has sex with someone else whose relationship to the person in question is to such an extent that the individual is denied, under the law, religion, custom or use appropriate to the person in question, to wed that individual; and was condemned to six years of detainment and one stroke of rotan under segment 376B(1)- rebuff with detainment between 6 to 20 years and whipping; of a similar Code. The denounced had perpetrated the wrongdoing in the middle of early January 2006 to 26th May 2006 of every a room at his home in Kulai, Johor Bharu, Johor. To a 11-year old young lady, Nurul Atikah bte Abdul Kadir, which is likewise his stepdaughter. In 2006, the young lady had to strip by the charged and was upset explicitly by him. He had done the unsettling influence to her multiple times. Moreover, he compromised her not to tell anybody and had beaten her. Father of the person in question, stopped a police report after he had seen changes in his little girl after he had picked her from his ex-wife’s home. After clinical registration were finished by the specialist, the casualty experienced wounds in her private part and was treated by a therapist. The blamed conceded in front for the judge,Zawawi Salleh in the High Court of Johor Bharu, arraigned by the Deputy Public Prosecutor, Husmin Hussin (Johor, State Legal Advisor Office). Be that as it may, his sentences was changed to eleven years of detainment and three strokes of rotan, after the case was spoke to the High Court Of Johor Bharu from the Sessions Court Johor Bharu. The sentences were changed as it was uncalled for to the casualty by considering her injury and wounds and the open perspectives about this case. Feeling/CONCLUSION In my supposition, the activity of engaging the judgment made by the Sessions Court of Johor Bharu was an equitable and reasonable choice. Six years of detainment with one stroke of rattan is excessively little contrasted with the wrongdoing. As indicated by John Austin, he characterizes law as an order given by a sovereign who might be a King, chamber or parliament. Such an order in his view is sponsored by intimidation with the goal that any individual who disregards the law, endure the torment gave by law. [7] The blamed should be rebuffed for what he had done to the person in question. The casualty was only a little, guiltless young lady contrasted with him whose effectively mature enough to consider good and bad. Furthermore, disciplines for carried out violations are not exclusively to rebuff the crooks, it is additionally as a discouragement to general society to not carry out a similar wrongdoing as they will be rebuffed as per the law as well. Six years detainment and one stroke of rattan are not adequate enough to stop the wrongdoing. As John Austin expressed on for what reason do we need to comply with the law? It is a result of the dread of approval. Austin see is the dread by which the law, by its coercive force, strikes in the core of the individuals is the thing that causes individuals to comply with the law. On the off chance that we expel the component of dread from the law, it would not be obeyed as there would be no discouragement. At the end of the day, if a law is made without authorize, it would be rebelled. [8] Lastly, after the High Court Judge of Johor Bharu condemned the blamed to eleven years for detainment and three strokes of rattan, at exactly that point, the equity can be seen. Bentham alludes equity as most extreme satisfaction of greatest number of individuals. [9] The public’s sees looking into the issue are likewise should be thought of. Least sentences given could create a scene in the general public. Indeed, even Hart referenced that equity is a common idea; everyone needs equity seen and done. This is additionally upheld by the point of having law is to keep up harmony and concordance. â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€ [1] M. D. A Freeman, Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, page 178. [2] M. D. A Freeman, Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, page 143. [3] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, 1994, International Law Book Services, Kuala Lumpur, page 205. [4] Jacques T. Morals Theory and Practice, (fifth ed. ). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, (1995): 3. [5] Basic Observations on Law and Morality. 10 September 2001. Web. 13 August 2012. [6] â€Å"Public Prosecutor v Mohd Romzan canister Ramli. † Malayan Law Journal, 22nd January 2012. Web. thirteenth August 2012. . [7] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, page 72,80,81. [8] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, page 74. [9] â€Å"Jeremy Bentham. † N. p. Web. fourteenth August 2012. .

Ideology Essay -- British Politics

Belief system has had a significant influence in British legislative issues for a considerable length of time. It had an impact in the setting up of the three significant gatherings as we probably am aware them today. Philosophy is hard to characterize as it is, for example, generally and approximately utilized term. Andrew Vincent just as numerous different creators, Vincent depicts belief system as, ‘the term ’ideology’ was a neologism intensified from the Greek expressions eidos and logos. It very well may be characterized as a ‘science of ideas’ (Vincent: 2009:p.1). Indeed, even from this definition it is hard to completely comprehend the term ‘ideology’ as it has such an expansive definition. The changing idea of British governmental issues in the post-war time added to the degree of significance that philosophy had during this period. The post-war period turned out to be none as a time of agreement governmental issues, the post-war accord has been depicted by David Marsh as, ‘a unmistakable arrangement worldview which formed the vital decisions of Britain's driving political on-screen characters as they looked to fabricate and afterward to save 'Another Jerusalem' from the harm made by the war’ (Marsh: 1999:p.67) this purported post-war agreement unquestionably had an impact in the expulsion of belief system from British legislative issues. In spite of the fact that the post-war agreement removed the significance of belief system in British legislative issues, there were periods inside the post-war accord where new philosophies rose. Belief system was significant in Clement Attlee’s government, which had a communist strategy motivation through the formation of the NHS and the progression of the government assistance state, in the 1980’s through the rise of Thatcherism, just as the making of ‘New Labour’ in 1997 and even the present government can be viewed as ideological . This article will initially take a gander at the significant job that belief system has to play, and has play... ...the war. In spite of the fact that there has been times when belief system might be viewed as immaterial, for example, the post-war agreement, this can be viewed as a philosophy in itself because of the uncertainty of the term, as Hickson composes, ‘both the Labor and Conservative gatherings acknowledged the philosophy of social democracy’ (Hickson: 2004: p.143). In this manner it is not out of the question to state that philosophy has been significant in British governmental issues in the post-war period. Thatcher, Attlee and Blair were plainly ideologically roused as their approaches appeared, however the post-war accord can likewise be viewed as a time of philosophy that the significant gatherings conceded to, and even the present government can be viewed as advancing another sort of belief system of bargain, belief system has and will keep on assuming a significant job in British legislative issues for a considerable length of time to come as philosophies adjust a nd develop to fit the political conditions.

Mythbusters Admissions Style - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Mythbusters Admissions Style - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Mythbusters Admissions Style It is summertime, and all around the country, admissions offices start the process of working with a new group of prospective students. This means an increase in visitors, planning for fall college fairs and school visits, and last but not least, the flood of phone calls beginning with I heard that UGA (insert myth here). At times, the counselors in our office feel like they should be on an episode of Mythbusters, stomping out Urban Legends left and right. It has become so prevelent that we have compiled a top ten list of Urban Legends for UGA Admissions. So let me give you the inside scoop right now; admissions standards are the same for all freshmen applicants. In-State vs. Out-of-State, north GA vs. south GA, by zip code, county, school district, male vs. female, alumni relation vs. non alumni, gender, race/ethnicity, summer vs. fall, choice of major, planet of origin, and so on. I think I hit all of them, but you get the idea. In other words, all applicants are dealt with in the same way, and anytime you hear a neighbor or friend say Well I heard that UGA , run away, quickly. Here are two examples of how silly certain admissions myths have become. If a freshman applies to UGA for summer admission and then wants to change to fall, all they would have to do is contact our office. Since there is no difference in admission standards, we would just change the term and bam, they are a fall student. In the same way, if a freshman applies as a Wildlife major and then wants to change to Pre-Business (either before or after an admission decision), all they have to do is go online to our Information Change form, select Pre-Business, and the next day their major is changed. As Adam and Jamie say on Mythbusters, this myth is definitely busted! If you have heard of any myths you would like to share (and that I can bust), please let me know!

Zoology Essay - 1264 Words

Zoology The study of zoology can be viewed as a series of efforts to analyse and classify animals. Attempts at classification as early as 400 BC are known from documents in the Hippocratic Collection. Aristotle, however, was the first to devise a system of classifying animals that recognized a basic unity of plan among diverse organisms; he arranged groups of animals according to mode of reproduction and habitat. Observing the development of such animals as the dogfish, chick, and octopus, he noted that general structures appear before specialized ones, and he also distinguished between asexual and sexual reproduction. His Historia Animalium contains accurate descriptions of extant animals of†¦show more content†¦Perhaps the most important naturalist of the era was the German scholar St Albertus Magnus, who denied many of the superstitions associated with biology and reintroduced the work of Aristotle. The anatomical studies of Leonardo da Vinci were far in advance of the age. His d issections and comparisons of the structure of humans and other animals led him to important conclusions. He noted, for example, that the arrangement of joints and bones in the leg are similar in both horses and humans, thus grasping the concept of homology (the similarity of corresponding parts in different kinds of animals, suggesting a common grouping). The value of his work in anatomy was not recognized in his time. Instead, the Belgian doctor Andreas Vesalius is considered the father of anatomy; he circulated his writings and established the principles of comparative anatomy. Classification dominated zoology throughout most of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus developed a system of nomenclature and classification that is still used today—the binomial system of genus and species—and established taxonomy as a discipline. He followed the work of the English naturalist John Ray in relying upon the form of teeth and toes to differentiate mammals and upon beak shape to classify birds. Another leading systematist of this era was theShow MoreRelatedPhysical And Mental Requirements Of Zoology1155 Words   |  5 Pages One of the most interesting jobs of today is a Zoologist. Not only is this job very easy to acquirer it can also benefit someone. The main factors to look up in zoology are the job requirements like physical and mental requirements, the education you acquire, job advancement, the salary, the responsibilities it comes with, and the travel opportunities. This job can help a person by giving them kn owledge and adventure in their life. 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Reducing Relative Clauses Quiz

Industrial Instrumentation On Load Cells Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(89) " overseas telegram opposition and therefore long signal overseas telegrams are non jobs\." Load cells are detectors which are used to mensurate the degree or force per unit area by change overing the force ( torsion or mass ) into electrical signals and so these signals are displayed by the show unit to demo the degree or force per unit area. Load cells are besides known as burden transducers. In dictionary, a burden cell is known as â€Å" weight mensurating device necessary for electronic signal that displays weight in the signifier of figures. We will write a custom essay sample on Industrial Instrumentation On Load Cells Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Load cells can be classified harmonizing to their operations: Load cells that utilize liquid force per unit area or air force per unit area. Load cells that utilize snap. Load cells that utilize a magnetostriction or piezoelectric consequence. The strain gage burden cell is the largely used among the all sorts of burden cells. Therefore, when we say â€Å" burden cell, † we are largely mentioning to strive gauge burden cells. Although there are many other measurement devices, such as piezoelectric detectors, magnetostrictive detectors, electrical capacity detector and other detectors. 1.2-Types of Load cells Strain gage burden cells Tension burden cells Pneumatic burden cells Hydraulic burden cells Shear Load Cells Compression Load Cells Bending Load Cells Ringing Torsion Load Cells Pancake Load Cells Single Point Load Cells 1.3-Strain Gauge Load Cells This is a type of burden cell which is usage to mensurate the degree of any storage vas. 1.3.1-Working rule When force per unit area is applied on a music director its length alterations due to which opposition of the music director alterations and relation to the alteration in opposition show unit displays the alteration in degree. 1.3.2-Construction and working A strain gage is consists of a long length music director which is arranged in zig-zag manner on the flexible membrane which is exposed to the applied force per unit area country. This music director is connected in a wheat rock span as a resistance and when force per unit area or weight is applied on the membrane which is connected to the music director it gets stretched and due to stretching the length of the music director alterations and due to alter in length the opposition of the music director additions. These are normally four or a multiple of four, are connected into a wheat rock span constellation in order to change over the really little alteration in the opposition into the suited electrical signal. As these gages are combination of mechanical and electrical constituents so the mechanical parts are located at the site but electrical parts are in the control suites due to their environmental and temperature sensitivenesss. And the wires used for the transmittal of the signals besides have their ain opposition so that opposition besides considered during their building. The accommodation and arrangement of the strain gage burden cell in the wheat rock span and its working phenomena is shown in the undermentioned diagrams. Strain gage burden cells are placed at the underside of the vass largely to mensurate the degree of the column or vas. 00204.png Figure Figure 00205.png 1.3.3-Advantages Strain gage burden cells are used in automotive industry to look into the structural public presentations of the stuff used in doors, goons, short pantss etc. Strain gage burden cells can be usage for weighing intents. Strain gage burden cells can besides be usage for stuff testing in procedure industry besides. Strain gage burden cells are besides used in tensile trial machines as a major constituent. Strain gage burden cells truth is 0.07 % of the rated capacity Strain gage burden cells can be used for both enlargement and compaction. Strain gage burden cells are less dearly-won so largely used in the industry. 1.3.4-Disadvantages Strain gage burden cells require uninterrupted electric energy for the production and show of signals. Strain gage burden cells besides requires an elaboration circuit for the coevals of end product show because the signals produced by the gage itself are of really much low electromotive force about in milli Vs. Strain gage burden cells can non be used for the force per unit area measuring of extremely reactive or caustic stuffs because they can damage the gage. Strain gage burden cells can non be used for the measuring of really high force per unit area if the stop usage is of plastic. 1.4-Tension Load Cells This is another type of burden cell which is besides usage to step to the degree. 1.4.1-Working Principle It consists of a vibrating wire transducer, fixed in a thick-vessel metallic cylinder, designed to supply a extremely stable and sensitive agencies of supervising tensile tonss in weighing systems, like procedure weighing systems and batch systems. As the applied burden additions on the burden cells the force on the internal vibrating wire besides increases by altering its tenseness, and therefore the resonating frequence of the vibrating wire. The frequence is measured and relative to the applied weight. 1.4.2-Construction and working The chief portion of this burden cell is strain gauged stop which is for good secured in the transducer shell. The transducer is fitted with a metallic oculus leting in line connexion to the deliberation system, and a metallic hook, attached to the sensitive stop, provides a agency by which weight is applied in a suspended manner. The burden cell is vented to the ambiance to extinguish barometric effects for the upper limit or optimal truth. The signal overseas telegram which is attached to the burden cell is connected with the control room where these signals can be monitored. Figure There are besides some Thermistors placed inside its shell which are used to mensurate the temperature of the working fluid or vas. Degree centigrade: UsersAlY RaZaAppDataLocalMicrosoftWindowsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordUntitled.png 1.4.3-Advantages The chief advantage of the tenseness burden cell is that it is extremely sensitive and stable. As it is a vibrating component wire detector and its end product is frequency so it is non affected by the alteration in the overseas telegram opposition and therefore long signal overseas telegrams are non jobs. You read "Industrial Instrumentation On Load Cells Engineering Essay" in category "Essay examples" The frequence of the vibrating wire is measured by either the portable read-out box or informations lumberman. So it can give more accurate readings. The end product signal scopes in the electromotive force from 0 to 5 Vs so there is no elaboration unit required and therefore the cost lessenings. The rated capacity of the tortuosity burden cell is from 10 kilograms to 15 kilograms. The truth of the tortuosity burden cells is A ±0.1 % The temperature ranges for the working or operation of the tortuosity burden cells is -20A °C to +80A °C. Such types of transducers have about zero impetus and have besides really low consequence of temperature on its truth. 1.4.4-Disadvantages This type of burden cells can non be used for high temperature fluids to happen degree or weight of fluid incorporating column. This type of burden cells can non besides be used for high capacities or for big armored combat vehicles column or weight measurings. This type of burden cell is extremely affected by the high temperatures due to its sensitive nature of the detection wire. 1.5-Pneumatic Load Cells This is another type of burden cells which are usage to mensurate the weight in the industry and these are used for low capacity. 1.5.1-Working Principle This type of burden cells works on â€Å" the force-balance rule. † 1.5.2-The Force-Balance Principle The inertial force produced by a seismal land gesture shifts the mass from its original equilibrium place, and the alteration in place or speed of the mass is so interpreted into an electric signal. This rule is for low scope burden cells. For long scope burden cells the inertial force is balanced with an electrically generated force so that the mass moves every bit low as possible. 1.5.3-Working of pneumatic burden cell This sort of burden cells consist of a detection component which is exposed to the site or the vas of which force per unit area or lying unstable weight is to be measured. And in this sort of burden cell the force reassigning medium is air as comparison to the any other fluid in instance of hydraulic burden cell. When force is applied by the lying fluid on the feeling portion of the burden cell it transfers this force to the inside air and so this force is applied on the potentiometer which is placed in the wheat rock span. As the force is applied on the feeling portion of the burden cell the opposition of the variable opposition potentiometer alterations due to this force and therefore the possible equilibrium between the oppositions is disturbed and this shows the magnitude of the applied force on the feeling component by exposing it on the show unit. Figure pneumatic.gif Another technique which is largely used in such sort of burden cells is the use of the piezoelectric crystals. In this sort the detection component transportations applied force to the interior fluid ( air ) and it imparts this force on the crystal. And due to the application of the applied force on the crystal by agencies of air its construction gets disturbed and due to disturbance in the construction the possible across the crystal alterations and this alteration in the possible across the crystal is detected by the voltmeter and so this electromotive force is converted into weight of force units and displayed on the exposing unit. Most of the clip wheat rock span is used for this sort of burden cell and there is merely variable resistance largely used while other resistances in the wheat rock span are of fixed opposition. 1.5.4-Advantages They are largely used on smaller tons when safety and protection are of premier concern. They are better in truth as comparison to the hydraulic burden cells because there is no alteration in the denseness and truth of the fluid being used for the transportation of applied force. They besides preferred on the hydraulic burden cells because there is no usage of liquid in these sorts of burden cells. These types of burden cells are inherently explosion cogent evidence and insensitive to temperature fluctuations. As they contain no fluids so there is no job of taint of the procedure if the stop gets ruptured. Pneumatic burden cells are besides used to mensurate little weights that depend upon cleanliness and safety. 1.5.5-Disadvantages The chief disadvantage of these types of burden cells is that they can non be used for high measure measuring. Although they are really resistive to the temperature effects but their truth even acquire disturbed at really high temperature. 1.6-Hydraulic Load Cells This is another type of burden cells which are used to mensurate the magnitude of the applied force and their transition to the electric signals and its digital show. 1.6.1-Working Principle This type of burden cells besides work on â€Å" the force-balance rule. † The difference between the pneumatic burden cell and hydraulic burden cell is merely the transferring medium. In instance of pneumatic burden cell the force reassigning medium is air while in hydraulic burden cells the force reassigning medium is largely liquid or incompressible oil which is besides known as break oil. 1.6.2-Construction and working Hydraulic burden cell consists of a fluid which act as a force reassigning medium and a piezoelectric crystal which is usage to change over this applied force into possible difference and so there is an agreement for the transition of this possible difference in footings of weight or force per unit area. There is a stop which is usage to feel the force exerted from the external side and the whole shell in which this complete cell is enclosed. When the force per unit area or weight by the vas or column is applied on the stop of the burden cell it sense that force and so transportations this force to the fluid which is filled in the shell of this burden cell. Then this force is transferred to the piezoelectric crystal by the fluid or oil and this oil transfers this force by the Pascal ‘s jurisprudence. So when the force is transferred by the oil it disturbs the internal construction of the piezoelectric crystal and due to this alteration in the construction of the piezoelectric crystal a possible difference is generated across the piezoelectric crystal. This possible difference is detected by the electric sensor and electric signal is transferred to the show unit to expose the magnitude of the applied force, weight or force per unit area. Figure Hydraulic.gif 1.6.3-Advantages These are largely use to happen the weight of the stuff in the storage armored combat vehicles, bin or hopper. The end product given by these types of burden cells is additive and largely unaffected by the sum of the filling fluid ( oil ) or by its temperature. If the hydraulic burden cells have been decently installed and calibrated so truth is largely within 0.25 % full graduated table or better and this is acceptable for most procedure weighing applications. As these types of burden cells have no electrical constituents therefore it is ideal for usage in risky or caustic countries. For more accurate measuring, the weight of the armored combat vehicle should be obtained by turn uping a burden cell at different points and summing their end products. 1.6.4-Disadvantages One disadvantage of this type of burden cell is that the elastomeric stop limits the maximal force that can be applied on the Piston or stop to about 1,000 psig. Electronic pari-mutuel machine is required in instance of acquiring more accurate reading by summing the readings of the single burden cells. Another disadvantage of hydraulic burden cell is that they are expensive and are complex to utilize. 1.7-Shear Load Cells This is another type of burden cells which is usage to mensurate the weight or the degree of the column incorporating fluid or some stuff. 1.7.1-Working Principle This type of burden cells works on the shear of the web. A web of an elastic stuff is inserted at some degree in the vas or storage armored combat vehicle and a shear emphasis exerted by the unstable column stretches the web harmonizing to the burden of the unstable column. Therefore by mensurating the shear emphasis the degree or weight of the fluid in a column can be measured. 1.7.2-Construction and working This type of burden cells consists of a web and a frame which is movable and the web is fixed with this frame. There are strain gages which are straight connected with this web and step the weight or degree of the column by mensurating the shear emphasis exerted by the liquid nowadays in the column on the web. As the web is inserted in the liquid column, liquid exerts the force on this web as this web is stretchy and elastic so it gets stretched and this stretched province of the web is sensed by the strain gages. This web is inserted in the liquid column perpendicular to the axis of the column. Then strain gages transfers the mensural value of the shear emphasis exerted by the tallness of the liquid column to the electrical transducers which converts it into electrical signals and so transmits it to the show unit to expose the mensural value of the weight in footings of degree or force per unit area as we required. Figure 1.7.3-Advantages Shear burden cells are popular now for all type of mediums and for high capacities. Shear-web is non limited to merely beam constellations. Shear-web detection component is besides being used by high capacity BSP and USP in a more complex manner. Shear burden cell engineering is besides being used in rearward transducers. Shear tonss cells can readily be sealed and can be protected from the environmental effects. 1.7.4-Disadvantages Shear burden cells have comparatively little sensitiveness at the burden point so can non be used for little graduated table measurings. Shear burden cells are expensive as comparison to the strain gages. Shear burden cells are delicate merely because of the web which is really delicate and can be easy damage due to overload fro few minutes even. How to cite Industrial Instrumentation On Load Cells Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Dylan Thomas and September 11th free essay sample

A paper which discusses the relevance of Dylan Thomas poetry to society today, especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11th. By examining several of Dylan Thomas poems, the paper shows how his continuous themes of the unity of life, the continuing process of life and death, and the life-link between generations are all relevant to society today, despite the fact that Thomas has been dead for over 50 years. The paper shows that in the wake of September 11th, his works, though not exactly comforting, do provide an outlet for a nation suddenly forced to deal with the harsh realities of life and death. A final strength of Thomass work is that he asks hard questions without proposing easy answers. He accepts death in the sense that he knows it is a part of life and must be, but he offers no platitudes about its goodness or rightness. Indeed, in one of his most famous poems, he urges, ?Do not go gentle into that good night. We will write a custom essay sample on Dylan Thomas and September 11th or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page / Rage, rage against the dying of the light.? In another poem, Out of the Pit, he questions, ?[W]heres Gods my Shepherd, God is Love? / No loving shepherd in this upside life.? In his avoidance of the quick fix, Thomas respects his own and his readers fear and hatred of death while acknowledging its reality.

Safety Precautions in Welding Operations Essay Example

Safety Precautions in Welding Operations Essay To prevent injury to personnel, extreme caution should be exercised when using any types of welding equipment. Injury can result from fire, explosions, electric shock, or harmful agents. Both the general and specific safety precautions listed below must be strictly observed by workers who weld or cut metals. b. Do not permit unauthorized persons to use welding or cutting equipment. c. Do not weld in a building with wooden floors, unless the floors are protected from hot metal by means of fire resistant fabric, sand, or other fireproof material. Be sure that hot sparks or hot metal will not fall on the operator or on any welding equipment components. d. Remove all flammable material, such as cotton, oil, gasoline, etc. , from the vicinity of welding. e. Before welding or cutting, warm those in close proximity who are not protected to wear proper clothing or goggles. f. Remove any assembled parts from the component being welded that may become warped or otherwise damaged by the welding process. . Do not leave hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools on the floor or around the welding equipment. Accidents and/or fires may occur. h. Keep a suitable fire extinguisher nearby at all times. Ensure the fire extinguisher is in operable condition. i. Mark all hot metal after welding operations are completed. Soapstone is commonly used for this purpose. 2-2. PERSON AL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT a. General. The electric arc is a very powerful source of light, including visible, ultraviolet, and infrared. Protective clothing and equipment must be worn during all welding operations. We will write a custom essay sample on Safety Precautions in Welding Operations specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Safety Precautions in Welding Operations specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Safety Precautions in Welding Operations specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer During all oxyacetylene welding and cutting proccesses, operators must use safety goggles to protect the eyes from heat, glare, and flying fragments of hot metals. During all electric welding processes, operators must use safety goggles and a hand shield or helmet equipped with a suitable filter glass to protect against the intense ultraviolet and infrared rays. When others are in the vicinity of the electric welding processes, the area must be screened so the arc cannot be seen either directly or by reflection from glass or metal. b. Helmets and Shields. 1) Welding arcs are intensely brilliant lights. They contain a proportion of ultraviolet light which may cause eye damage. For this reason, the arc should never be viewed with the naked eye within a distance of 50. 0 ft (15. 2 m). The brilliance and exact spectrum, and therefore the danger of the light, depends on the welding process, the metals in the arc, the arc atmosphere, the length of the arc, and the welding current. Operator s, fitters, and those working nearby need protection against arc radiation. The intensity of the light from the arc increases with increasing current and arc voltage. Arc radiation, like all light radiation, decreases with the square of the distance. Those processes that produce smoke surrounding the arc have a less bright arc since the smoke acts as a filter. The spectrum of the welding arc is similar to that of the sun. Exposure of the skin and eyes to the arc is the same as exposure to the sun. (2) Being closest, the welder needs a helmet to protect his eyes and face from harmful light and particles of hot metal. The welding helmetis generally constructed of a pressed fiber insulating material. It has an adjustable headband that makes it usable by persons with different head sizes. To minimize reflection and glare produced by the intense light, the helmet is dull black in color. It fits over the head and can be swung upward when not welding. The chief advantage of the helmet is that it leaves both hands free, making it possible to hold the work and weld at the same time. (3) The hand-held shield provides the same protection as the helmet, but is held in position by the handle. This type of shield is frequently used by an observer or a person who welds for a short period of time. 4) The protective welding helmet has lens holders used to insert the cover glass and the filter glass or plate. Standard size for the filter plate is 2 x 4-1/4 in. (50 x 108 mm). In some helmets lens holders open or flip upwards. Lenses are designed to prevent flash burns and eye damage by absorption of the infrared and ultraviolet rays produced by the arc. The filter glasses or plates come in vario us optical densities to filter out various light intensities, depending on the welding process, type of base metal, and the welding current. The color of the lens, usually green, blue, or brown, is an dded protection against the intensity of white light or glare. Colored lenses make it possible to clearly see the metal and weld. Table 2-1 lists the proper filter shades to be used. A magnifier lens placed behind the filter glass is sometimes used to provide clear vision. A cover plate should be placed outside the filter glass to protect it from weld spatter. The filter glass must be tempered so that is will not break if hit by flying weld spatter. Filter glasses must be marked showing the manufacturer, the shade number, and the letter â€Å"H† indicating it has been treated for impact resistance. NOTE Colored glass must be manufactured in accordance with specifications detailed in the National Safety Code for the Protection of Hands and Eyes of Industrial Workers†, issued by the National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC, and OSHA Standards, Subpart Q, â€Å"Welding, Cutting, and Brazing†, graph 1910. 252, and American National Standards Institute Standard (ANSI) Z87. 1-1968, â€Å"American National Standard Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection†. (5) Gas metal-arc (MIG) welding requires darker filter lenses than shielded metal-arc (stick) welding. The intensity of the ultraviolet radiation emitted during gas metal-arc welding ranges from 5 to 30 times brighter than welding with covered electrodes. (6) Do not weld with cracked or defective shields because penetrating rays from the arc may cause serious burns. Be sure that the colored glass plates are the proper shade for arc welding. Protect the colored glass plate from molten metal spatter by using a cover glass. Replace the cover glass when damaged or spotted by molten metal spatter. (7) Face shields (fig. 2-2) must also be worn where required to protect eyes. Welders must wear safety glasses and chippers and grinders often use face shields in addition to safety glasses. (8) In some welding operations, the use of mask-type respirators is required. Helmets with the bubble front design can be adapted for use with respirators. c. Safety Goggles. During all electric welding processes, operators must wear safety goggles (fig. 2-3) to protect their eyes from weld spatter which occasionally gets inside the helmet. These clear goggles also protect the eyes from slag particles when chipping and hot sparks when grinding. Contact lenses should not be worn when welding or working around welders. Tinted safety glasses with side shields are recommended, especially when welders are chipping or grinding. Those working around welders should also wear tinted safety glasses with side shields. d. Protective Clothing. (1) Personnel exposed to the hazards created by welding, cutting, or brazing operations shall be protected by personal protective equipment in accordance with OSHA standards, Subpart I, Personal Protective Equipment, paragraph 1910. 132. The appropriate protective clothing (fig. -4) required for any welding operation will vary with the size, nature, and location of the work to be performed. Welders should wear work or shop clothes without openings or gaps to prevent arc rays from contacting the skin. Those working close to arc welding should also wear protective clothing. Clothing should always be kept dry, including gloves. (2) Woolen clothing should be worn instead of cotton since wool is not ea sily burned or damaged by weld spatter and helps to protect the welder from changes in temperature. Cotton clothing, if used, should be chemically treated to reduce its combustibility. All other clothing, such as jumpers or overalls, should be reasonably free from oil or grease. (3) Flameproof aprons or jackets made of leather, fire resistant material, or other suitable material should be worn for protection against spatter of molten metal, radiated heat, and sparks. Capes or shoulder covers made of leather or other suitable materials should be worn during overhead welding or cutting operations. Leather skull caps may be worn under helmets to prevent head burns. (4) Sparks may lodge in rolled-up sleeves, pockets of clothing, or cuffs of overalls and trousers. Therefore, sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned and pockets should be eliminated from the front of overalls and aprons. Trousers and overalls should not be turned up on the outside. For heavy work, fire-resisant leggings, high boots, or other equivalent means should be used. In production work, a sheet metal screen in front of the worker’s legs can provide further protection against sparks and molten metal in cutting operations. (5) Flameproof gauntlet gloves, preferably of leather, should be worn to protect the hands and arms from rays of the arc, molten metal spatter, sparks, and hot metal. Leather gloves should be of sufficient thickness so that they will not shrivel from the heat, burn through, or wear out quickly. Leather gloves should not be used to pick up hot items, since this causes the leather to become stiff and crack. Do not allow oil or grease to cane in contact with the gloves as this will reduce their flame resistance and cause them to be readily ignited or charred. e. Protective Equipment. (1) Where there is exposure to sharp or heavy falling objects or a hazard of bumping in confined spaces, hard hats or head protectors must be used. 2) For welding and cutting overhead or in confined spaces, steel-toed boots and ear protection must also be used. When welding in any area, the operation should be adequately screened to protect nearby workers or passers-by froman the glare of welding. The screens should be arranged so that no serious restriction of ventilation exists. The screens should be mounted so that they are about 2. 0 ft above the floor unless the work is performed at such a low level that the screen must be extended closer to the floor to protect adjacent workers. The height of the screen is normally 6. 0 ft (1. m) but may be higher depending upon the situation. Screen and surrounding areas must be painted with special paints which absorb ultraviolet radiation yet do not create high contrast between the bright and dark areas. Light pastel colors of a zinc or titanium dioxide base paint are recommended. Black paint should not be used. 2-3. FIRE HAZARDS a. Fire prevention and protection is the responsibility of welders, cutters, and supervisors. Approximately six percent of the fires in industrial plants are caused by cutting and welding which has been done primarily with portable equipment or in areas not specifically designated for such work. The elaboration of basic precautions to be taken for fire prevention during welding or cutting is found in the Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Cutting and Welding Processes, National Fire Protection Association Standard 51B, 1962. Some of the basic precautions for fire prevention in welding or cutting work are given below. b. During the welding and cutting operations, sparks and molten spatter are formal which sometimes fly considerable distances. Sparks have also fallen through cracks, pipe holes, or other small openings in floors and partitions, starting fires in other areas which temporarily may go unnoticed. For these reasons, welding or cutting should not be done near flammable materials unless every precaution is taken to prevent ignition. c. Hot pieces of base metal may come in contact with combustible materials and start fires. Fires and explosions have also been caused when heat is transmitted through walls of containers to flammable atmospheres or to combustibles within containers. Anything that is combustible or flammable is susceptible to ignition by cutting and welding. d. When welding or cutting parts of vehicles, the oil pan, gasoline tank, and other parts of the vehicle are considered fire hazards and must be removed or effectively shielded from sparks, slag, and molten metal. e. Whenever possible, flammable materials attached to or near equipment requiring welding, brazing, or cutting will be removed. If removal is not practical, a suitable shield of heat resistant material should be used to protect the flammable material. Fire extinguishing equipment, for any type of fire that may be encountered, must be present. 2-4. HEALTH PROTECTION AND VENTILATION a. General. 1) All welding and thermal cutting operations carried on in confined spaces must be adequately ventilated to prevent the accumulation of toxic materials, combustible gases, or possible oxygen deficiency. Monitoring instruments should be used to detect harmful atmospheres. Where it is impossible to provide adequate ventilation, air-supplied respirators or hose masks approved for this purpo se must be used. In these situations, lookouts must be used on the outside of the confined space to ensure the safety of those working within. Requirements in this section have been established for arc and gas welding and cutting. These requirements will govern the amount of contamination to which welders may be exposed: (a) Dimensions of the area in which the welding process takes place (with special regard to height of ceiling). (b) Number of welders in the room. (c) Possible development of hazardous fumes, gases, or dust according to the metals involved. (d) Location of welders breathing zone with respect to rising plume of fumes. (2) In specific cases, there are other factors involved in which respirator protective devices (ventilation) should be provided to meet the equivalent requirements of this section. They include: (a) Atomspheric conditions. (b) Generated heat. (c) Presence of volatile solvents. (3) In all cases, the required health protection, ventilation standards, and standard operating procedures for new as well as old welding operations should be coordinated and cleaned through the safety inspector and the industrial hygienist having responsibility for the safety and health aspects of the work area. b. Screened Areas. When welding must be performed in a space entirely screened on all sides, the screens shall be arranged so that no serious restriction of ventilation exists. It is desirable to have the screens mounted so that they are about 2. 0 ft (0. 6 m) above the floor, unless the work is performed at such a low level that the screen must be extended closer to the floor to protect workers from the glare of welding. See paragraph 2-2 e (3). c. Concentration of Toxic Substances. Local exhaust or general ventilating systems shall be provided and arranged to keep the amount of toxic frees, gas, or dusts below the acceptable concentrations as set by the American National Standard Institute Standard 7. 7; the latest Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; or the exposure limits as established by Public Law 91-596, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. Compliance shall be determined by sampling of the atmsphere. Samples collected shall reflect the exposure of the persons involved. When a helmet is worn, the samples shall be collected under the helmet. NOTE Where welding operations are incidental t o general operations, it is considered good practice to apply local exhaust ventilation to prevent contamination of the general work area. d. Respiratory Protective Equipment. Individual respiratory protective equipment will be well retained. Only respiratory protective equipment approved by the US Bureau of Mines, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, or other government-approved testing agency shall be utilized. Guidance for selection, care, and maintenance of respiratory protective equipment is given in Practices for Respiratory Protection, American National Standard Institute Standard 788. 2 and TB MED 223. Respiratory protective equipment will not be transferred from one individual to another without being disinfected. . Precautionary Labels. A number of potentially hazardous materials are used in flux coatings, coverings, and filler metals. These materials, when used in welding and cutting operations, will become hazardous to the welder as they are released into the atmosphere. These include, but are not limited to, the following materials: fluorine compounds, zinc, lead, beryllium, cadmium, and mercu ry. See paragraph 2-4 i through 2-4 n. The suppliers of welding materials shall determine the hazard, if any, associated with the use of their materials in welding, cutting, etc. 1) All filler metals and fusible granular materials shall carry the following notice, as a minimum, on tags, boxes, or other containers: CAUTION Welding may produce fumes and gases hazardous to health. Avoid breathing these fumes and gases. Use adequate ventilation. See American National Standards Institute Standard Z49. 1-1973, Safety in Welding and Cutting published by the American Welding Society. (2) Brazing (welding) filler metals containing cadmium in significant amounts shall carry the following notice on tags, boxes, or other containers: WARNING CONTAINS CADMIUM POISONOUS FUMES MAY BE FORMED ON HEATING Do not breathe fumes. Use only with adequate ventilation, such as fume collectors, exhaust ventilators, or air-supplied respirators. See American National Standards Institute Standard Z49. 1-1973. If chest pain, cough, or fever develops after use, call physician immediately. (3) Brazing and gas welding fluxes containing fluorine compounds shall have a cautionary wording. One such wording recommended by the American Welding Society for brazing and gas welding fluxes reads as follows: CAUTION CONTAINS FLUORIDES This flux, when heated, gives off fumes that may irritate eyes, nose, and throat. Avoid fumesuse only in well-ventilated spaces. Avoid contact of flux with eyes or skin. Do not take internally. f. Ventilation for General Welding and Cutting. (1) General. Mechanical ventilation shall be provided when welding or cutting is done on metals not covered in subparagraphs i through p of this section, and under the following conditions: (a) In a space of less than 10,000 cu ft (284 cu m) per welder. (b) In a roan having a ceiling height of less than 16 ft (5 m). c) In confined spaces or where the welding space contains partitions, balconies, or other structural barriers to the extent that they significantly obstruct cross ventilation. (2) Minimum rate. Ventilation shall be at the minimum rate of 200 cu ft per minute (57 cu m) per welder, except where local exhaust heeds, as in paragraph 2-4 g below, or airline respirators approved by the US Bureau of Mines, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, or other government-approved testing agency, are used. When welding with rods larger than 3/16 in. (0. 48 cm) in diameter, the ventilation shall be higher as shown in the following:

The Development and Institutionalization of Slave Trade Essay Example

The Development and Institutionalization of Slave Trade Essay Example The Development and Institutionalization of Slave Trade Essay The Development and Institutionalization of Slave Trade Essay The Development and Institutionalization of Slave Trade BY vwoods 1987 Slavery, the condition of one human being owned by another (Slavery), has gone through many stages in its development and its reception around the world. As part of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BCE, slaves were a large part of civilized society as entertainers in the gladiator arena. These slaves would have been forced to compete, but with their victories and their deaths they would gain respect and some even their freedom. In Africa before the 16th century, slavery and systems of ervitude existed throughout the continent. African slaves during this time were often captives of war or indentured servants; however they were not treated with disrespect. Instead it was common practice for such slaves to be fully integrated into the village or tribe to which their owners belonged. Slaves would live side by side with their owners and could eventually become each others peers. It wasnt until the colonization of the New World and the spread of tobacco cultivation (Foner 101), began that the bond of slavery became less about the slave and more about cheap nd lifelong labor. As Eric Foner states in Give Me Liberty! An American History, no European nation embarked on the colonization of the New World with the intention of relying on African Slaves for the bulk of its labor force (101). Unfortunately, as the New World began to develop and expand its agriculture base, namely tobacco, that the demand for workers increased. European settlers originally had no plan to meet the labor request. Their first resort was to force Indian labor (Morgan 52). This plan began to unravel quickly however, since the Indians were easily susceptible to oreign diseases and began to die off before profits could be made (Morgan 53). It became clear that the Indian population would not support the labor force needed, and so the Europeans began looking elsewhere. Having considered other options, Europeans set their sights on Africa (Morgan 53). The nations of West Africa had had long standing relationships with the different European nations. In the early years of what would become the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, Spain and Portugal were the first nations to export slaves from Africa in great numbers. Records show that from the years 1500 to 1 550 over 64, 000 slaves were exported by these two countries alone (Number of Captives). These same records conclude that until the 1640s, Spain and Portugal were the only two countries with significant numbers in the slave trade. In 1619, the first Africans, twenty in all, arrived in Virginia (Foner 105), and with their arrival, the flood gates opened. It was at this time that other nations, namely Great Britain and the Netherlands, became more involved in the slave trade. The British and the Dutch began importing laves to the New World to meet the needs of the colonies. The British colonies of Virginia and Maryland, as well as the Dutch colony in New York, made up the Chesapeake area, with each having its own large tobacco industries that needed to be fueled by slave labor. By the turn of the century, the British and the Dutch had imported nearly 640,000 slaves to the colonies. With the importation of large number 0T slaves came more ana more laws tnat trlea to ratlonallze slavery as well to create a never ending supply of new slaves. Laws were passes regarding the birth of slave children as well as interracial children, with nearly all laws stating that if the mother was a slave that the child was a slave also, and became property of the slave owner. These laws consequently made sexual abuse of slave women profitable for slave holders (Foner 106). In such a short time Virginia had changed from a society with slaves, in which slavery was one system of labor among others, to a slave society, where slavery stood at the center of the economic process (Foner 108). Across the Atlantic, as stated efore, slavery was practiced throughout much of Africa among the various tribes and villages. However, with the increasing demand for slaves, coastal tribes would raid the inland tribes and capture their fellow Africans and sell them to the Europeans for small valuable trinkets. These newly captures slaves couldnt possibly have known what their futures held for them in the New World, if they made it there. Within the borders of the New World slaves tried to escape whenever possible, but rarely succeeded in such a new and strange world. Slaves newly imported were ubject to laws and customs that they didnt understand, and since many of them came from different villages few could communicate with each other (Marques). Slave rebellion was kept under control by the fierce and open violence aimed at those who stepped out of line. Fear for ones life suddenly became more important than freedom for many of the newly enslaved. As the years progressed the slave trade would see fluctuations in the number of slaves exported from Africa and imported to various countries as well as into the colonies, and then the United States of America. Political tensions, including the Revolutionary War, contributed to decline in slave importation but it wasnt until the 1831s that the slave trade essentially ended, at least for the United States. As History is bound to repeat itself, in recent times, there are numerous occasions were slavery has peaked and then declined. Fortunately these recent incidences, have never reached such catastrophic and saddening numbers as the Tran-Atlantic Slave Trade had. Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!. An American History. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. New York: W. W. Norton, 2011. Print. Marques, Leonardo. Slave Trading In a New World. Journal of the Early Republic 32. 2 Academic search complete. web. 4 oct. 2012 Morgan, Philip D. Origins of American Slavery. OAH Magazine of History 19. 4 (2005): 51-56. Academic Search Complete. Web. 4 Oct. 2012 Number of Captives Embarked and Disembarked Per Year. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. Emory University, 2009. Web. 4 Oct. 2012. Slavery. Encyclop? ¦dia Britannica. Encyclop? ¦dia Britannica Online. Encyclop? ¦dia Britannica Inc. , 2012. Web. 10 Oct. 2012

Every Child Matters Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Every Child Matters - Literature review Example The Children Act 2004 obliges schools and children's service agencies and other agencies, such as police, prisons and NHS trusts to protect children and promote their welfare. The agenda includes everything from "maltreatment, neglect, violence and sexual exploitation, accidental injury, and death, bullying and discrimination, to crime and antisocial behavior."   The areas of focus have been an educational failure, ill health, substance addiction, teenage pregnancy, abuse and neglect, crime and anti-social behavior among children and young people.The policy includes five main aims   of focus - be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution to society and achieve economic wellbeing. The aims of the program have been good health (mental and physical, health lifestyles), skills development, community and society participation, economic well-being, creating Sure Start Children’s Centres in at-risk neighborhoods. The Sure Start children's centre programme offers early learning opportunities for children. The program is based on the belief that high-quality play and books at early age help in further learning effort at later stages of schooling. This helps to identify early learning abilities of children and prevent any possible defects. Along with other planned activities the policy aimed to boost child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS) through creation of a Young People’s Fund. The policy also targets improvement of speech and language therapy. There are also many other activities planned to boost the level of child protection and development.  

Model Predictive Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Model Predictive Control - Essay Example By having access to data for several previous occurrences, it is more likely that a person familiar with the process can discern important patterns and identify the underlying cause(s) for the abnormal condition. Suppose that it is desired to analyze an abnormal condition, which is represented by multivariate time-series data for key process variables (e.g., measurements of controlled and manipulated variables for several interacting control loops). The objective is to locate similar, previous episodes (if they exist) in a large historical database, using an unsupervised learning technique. The proposed method does not require a process model, training data, or planned experiments. Instead, the analysis is based on historical operating data, which may be compressed Chemical manufacturing processes present many challenging control problems, including: nonlinear dynamic behaviour; multivariable interactions between manipulated and controlled variables; unmeasured state variables; unmeasured and frequent disturbances; high-order and distributed processes; uncertain and time-varying parameters; unmodelled dynamics; constraints on manipulated and state variables; and (variable) dead time on inputs and measurements. Further, reliable measurements of important variables to be controlled, such as quality related variables, are often difficult to obtain on-line. A number of control approaches and algorithms that are able to handle some of the above process characteristics have been presented in the academic literature in resent years. Bequette (1991) gives a review of various approaches, such as: internal model approaches; differential geometric approaches; reference system synthesis techniques, including internal decoupling and generic model control; model predictive control approaches; and also various special and ad hoc approaches. Many of these Automatic Control approaches are not able to handle the various process characteristics and requirements met in industrial applications, and some of the approaches can only be applied for special classes of models. Nonlinear Model Nonlinear model predictive control appears to be the only general approaches which can handle most of the common process characteristics and industrial requirements in a satisfactory way. It also seems to be the approaches, which are most suitable for the development of general and application independent software, which is essential for the development of cost-effective applications. For the above reasons this survey will focus on nonlinear model predictive control approaches presented in the open literature. Algorithms for nonlinear model predictive control are often extensions of linear model predictive control algorithms. For continuity the main characteristic features of linear model predictive control are briefly discussed. A nonlinear model is used for predicting the effects of past inputs. Future input moves, however, are calculated from a linear model, by solving av. quadratic program at each sampling time. The computational burden is then comparable to the ordinary QDMC algorithm. In the case of a nonlinear state-space model, the linear model is obtained by linearizing the nonlinear model around the current state estimate. In the case of an input-output model the nonlinear model is also linearized, and a minimal state-space realization of the linear

Personality Disorder Carer and Family Support Impact

Personality Disorder Carer and Family Support Impact ARE PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL AND SUPPORT PROGRAMMES FOR FAMILY AND CARERS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING RELAPSES AND FACILITATING RECOVERY OF PEOPLE SUFFERING FROM PERSONALITY DISORDERS? ABSTRACT Background Carers and families of people suffering from personality disorder are in desperate need of support and services. Providing these services can reduce relapses and facilitate recovery in sufferers of personality disorder. The Research Question How can psycho-educational and support programmes for carers and families of those with personality disorder improve their recovery? Methodology The results of this study were obtained through a systematic literature review. Results Diagnosis and treatment of personality disorder are still complex and often confusing issues, even for professionals. Still, treatment can produce recovery and this recovery can be expedited if carers and families are provided with programmes to equip them to effectively face the challenges that personality disorder presents. Conclusions Providing psycho-educational and support programmes makes carers more effective and can help treat personality disorder. Social Workers can help to bridge a gap in the services that is adversely affecting the treatment outcomes of sufferers and hence placing greater strain on the Health System than is necessary. Contextualisation The carers and families of individuals suffering from personality disorders are an underserved population. Considerable strain is placed upon them and their loved ones and they are often at a loss as to how to effectively perform their duties and assist the recovery of those they care for. If more psycho-educational and support programmes for carers and families were provided, it is possible that treatment for personality disorder could be improved. Personality disorders can be defined as: â€Å". . . psychiatric conditions relating to functional impairment, or psychological distress resulting from inflexible and maladaptive personality traits.†1 Personality disorders are explained in the two most prominent classification schemes, the DSM-IV, where personality disorders can be found in Axis II, and the ICD-10. The definitions in these diagnostic classification systems are much the same. Defining ‘severe personality disorder has proved problematic for experts, who have yet to establish a generally accepted definition. The suggestion of the Royal College of Psychiatrists (1999) that severe personality disorder is marked by extreme societal disturbance and at least one extreme personality disorder has provided some guidance.2 Alternatively, having two severe disorders could mean that the sufferer has one disorder that expresses itself in more than one extreme way, or could simply indicate one deeply disturbing disorder. One study graded the severity of personality disorder on 163 subjects and found that the patients whose personality disorder was described as ‘complex demonstrated the greatest number of symptoms and recovered the least. Personality disorder carers are people who support a person who suffers from any form of personality disorder, whether they are relatives, friends or partners. Often, carers give sufferers emotional and financial support and may even act as informal social workers. Previous studies have shown that carers of people with personality disorder benefit from psycho-educational and support programmes. Psycho-educational programmes are educational programmes that contain an element of counselling or therapeutic activity for the family. The main aim of these programmes is to minimise the strain experienced by families and carers of people with mental illnesses, here personality disorder. Psycho-educational and counselling programmes exist ultimately to facilitate recovery and reduce relapses; indeed, the success of programmes is usually measured by examining relapse rates. Programmes attempt to provide adequate support, information, signposting to appropriate resources, advocacy and respite for carers. They also coach carers to increase their problem solving abilities, improve their communication and help them construct their own support networks. Support programmes for carers of people with a mental illness attempt to support the contribution that carers make to the lives of those they care for. They work toward advances in policy that will augment the services that satisfy carer requirements. Support programmes prompt dialogue between members of the government and carers, as well as encouraging carer involvement in the creation and delivery of carer and patient services. Further, support services connect carers with agencies to assist them in their role and facilitate modes of best practice in aiding carers. The Research Question This literature review examines a number of studies on personality disorder, its effect on carers and issues connected with diagnosis and treatment in an attempt to determine whether psycho-educational and support programmes for family and carers are effective in reducing relapses and facilitating recovery of people suffering from personality disorders. If social workers are to work effectively with this client base, they must put aside antiquated beliefs that personality disorder cases are hopeless and that those who suffer from personality disorder never get better. This study reveals that one of the greatest challenges to carers and families is obtaining the support they need and the services they are entitled to, and Social Workers can be instrumental in bridging gaps in the Mental Health system. Methodology This dissertation undertakes a systematic literature review of health care and psychological literature to address key issues in the support of carers of people suffering from personality disorders. Several different studies and a range of approaches were examined. Although the number and breadth of studies was a strength of the review, the variety of approaches made it challenging to compare the overall merits of one study against another. The literature was obtained through a variety of means. Google searches, journal articles, working group reports, service provider reports and academic papers were used. The research methods that appear in the utilised material included telephone interviews, questionnaires and surveys, face-to-face interviews and meta-analysis. Some were literature reviews themselves and some simply reported on the outcomes when a group of treated individuals was observed. Of the studies that involved observation of a group, very few included a control group in the study so methodological rigour was not as great as it could have been. Neither is it certain that studies where self-reporting was used are as empirically reliable as one would like, as sufferers of personality disorder tend to over- or under-report their symptoms . Some of the studies that were conducted recently showed positive outcomes, but the long-term follow-up for the same groups may make the figures less significant. Even where there has been longterm follow-up, some of those who took part in the initial study may not be included because of death, inability or unwillingness to participate, or inability to be located. The methodological rigour of the studies is further complicated by the fact that the process of diagnosis and treatment of personality disorder is fraught with complexities. The categories for personality disorder are somewhat defined by behaviours and are not theoretically based or grounded in common mechanisms of the disorder. The actions and symptoms of patients are so extremely varied that both diagnosis and treatment are difficult to present, much less to assess. Yet just because a comprehensive catalogue of truths about personality disorder cannot be presented does not mean that no reliable statements can be made. The evidence that is presented here is solid enough to make general assertions regarding the affects of carer support on patients based upon the evidence, and that is what it intends to do. Assessing the impact of support and education for carers upon the sufferers of personality disorder themselves proved more challenging than, for example, assessing the impact of treatment on sufferers, for which there is abundant literature. Still, the impact of psycho-educational and support programmes on consumers has been assessed and outcomes observed. Additionally, the evidence for the improvement of the lives of carers and the quality of care they give their charges is strong, and this fact bolsters the hypothesis that improved care for carers improves the mental health of those for whom they care. These conclusions are definitely linked, especially given the statistics that show that improvement for personality disorder takes place over a long period of time and is facilitated by positive interpersonal relationships with people who are equipped to deal with the symptoms that people with personality disorder exhibit. The presence of positive relationships with carers who are tr ained, educated and supported will assuredly improve the ‘treatment conditions for those with personality disorder. In narrowing the scope of the literature to be included in the study, several factors had to be noted. Some of the literature was so grounded in certain programmes for certain countries that many sections were not transferable to this review. For example, the results of the Network for Carers (2004) report were based upon specific programmes offered in Australia, so some information had to be excluded. However, this document was very helpful in establishing general facts about the needs of carers and the impact of programmes upon their ability to care for sufferers. It was also a thorough exposition of the opinions of carers,through which their voice was clearly heard. There were also other limitations regarding the particular demographic studied. The NHS National Programme on Forensic Mental Health Research and Development Expert Paper on Personality Disorders primarily assessed offenders with personality disorder and not merely members of the wider public suffering from the disorde r. Because of this, significant sections of the material had to be ignored. Still, this paper was useful in understanding the complexities of treatment and diagnosis of personality disorder, and provided definitions for contextualisation. In evaluating the quality of the data, the analytical tool Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) was used to assist in making sense of the evidence. This tool is advantageous to those who are strangers to qualitative research, assessing the merits of a source with regard to rigour, credibility and relevance.CASP initially asks two screening questions, the first addressing research aims and significance. The second screening question considers whether the research interprets subjective experiences of participants.Answering these two questions with a ‘yes then leads to eight more questions covering issues such as recruitment strategies, collection of data and ethical issues. In a literature review there are several ethical issues that must be considered, especially when dealing with a vulnerable population such as sufferers of mental illness. For each study used in the review it was necessary to consider whether ethical standards were maintained throughout the study, includi ng the manner in which consent was obtained and the way that confidentiality was upheld. Another ethical consideration is the handling of the outcomes of the study with the participants after the study.9 In the data observed here, it is not always explicit that consent was obtained but is often implied. Eliciting feedback from carers carries implied consent even if consent was not explicit, for obviously no individual would be forced to comment against his or her will. Confidentiality is maintained through omitting names and keeping the results impersonal. Yet the information given for studies is in its final and often abbreviated form, and the background work is not always documented comprehensively enough to ascertain whether all ethical considerations have been taken into account. One ethical consideration that is not always considered is the treatment of ethnic minorities in research projects, especially those for whom English is not their first language. The wording of questions and the criteria by which outcomes are judged is often tainted by cultural bias for those being assessed outside their native surroundings. It is practically impossible to remedy this, because part of the methodological rigour of the study depends upon all participants being treated and assessed in the same way. Differentiation on the basis of cultural differences would compromise the consistency of the study, but the impact of cultural factors is most certainly felt by those of foreign origin. Discussion of Findings Traits The traits exhibited by sufferers of personality disorder differ immensely because of the wide scope of the disorder. Examples of traits range from anxiety, narcissism and compulsivity to defiance, abnormal attachments and avoidance of social situations. Sufferers may demonstrate an arrogant interpersonal style, or may show extreme submissiveness. Personality disorders are linked with negative results in the wider population such as marital breakdown, criminal actions and professional difficulties.The anomalies of personality disorder are apparent in the thought patters, expressions and levels of self-control of sufferers. The patient will display abnormalities in the way that he or she interacts with others which will appear in a range of circumstances. There are various types of personality disorders, and each has its own banners of dysfunction. It has been recognised that the kinds of personality disorders covered in DSM and ICD are a small cluster when contrasted with the array o f personality impairments that can be identified in large configurations of people.11 Personality disorders can be divided into three clusters, A-C. In the first cluster disorders relating to paranoia and schizophrenia are found. Cluster B includes antisocial and narcissistic disorders, and Cluster C focuses on avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Prevalence It is estimated that between 6% and 15% of the population have one or more personality disorders of some kind—different studies produce different results.13 The goal of one study was to estimate the prevalence of personality disorders in a local sample and discern the most common demographic groups therein. The frequency of the DSM and ICD personality disorders and the interactions between disorder clusters and demographic qualities was assessed in a local sample of 742 participants between the ages of 34 and 94 over two years.14 The results showed that the overall prevalence of DSM-IV personality disorders was approximately 9%. Among the disorders, antisocial personality disorder was the most common and appeared in almost 5% of those assessed. Dependent personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorders were rare. The prevalence of many of the individual disorders was only 1% to 2%. For ICD-10 disorders, the overall presence in the surveyed group was 7%. Again, the prevalence for individual disorders was 1% to 2%. The most common disorder in for the ICD disorders was dissocial personality disorder at 3%. Dependent personality disorder was, again, very rare. Who is affected? Studies dedicated to uncovering the risk factors for personality disorder produced a variety of results. Prominent factors that may lead to a personality disorder include having a parent who is involved in or has been convicted of a crime, having a parent with deficient parenting abilities and being part of a large family. Factors such as low intelligence also feature in the list of risk factors. However, this study and studies that are similar raise certain issues about the nature of judging which factors should be included as risk factors for personality disorder. These sorts of factors could be criticised for having prejudicial antecedent assumptions regarding what it means to be a functioning human being. It is likely that people from lower socio-economic classes will have a tendency to fit these categories more than their middle- or upper class counterparts.Care should be taken in describing risk factors to ensure the language used is not biased by class. In the study mentioned above, several demographic characteristics were assessed with regard to prevalence of personality disorder. The outcomes demonstrated that Cluster A disorders were more common in males than in females. Cluster A disorders were also more prevalent in participants who were divorced or separated than those who were married or widowed. Subjects who had never been married were the most susceptible sub-group of all. In the Cluster B category, men were again more prone to having a personality disorder than women. Cluster B disorders were most common in the youngest age range surveyed and least common in the oldest range. Further, this cluster was most prevalent in participants who lacked a high school diploma and was least prevalent in participants who graduated from high school and continued their education afterwards. The odds of having one of these disorders decreased approximately 6% for each year an individual aged. One possible explanation for the increase of prevalence of disorder with age could be that people of more mature generations are less likely to have, know about or report symptoms of personality disorder. The prevalence of Cluster C disorders was most closely related to marital status, again showing that participants who had never been married were most likely to have one of these disorders. The likelihood of having a Cluster C disorder was almost 7 times greater in those never married when contrasted with those who were married or widowed. The results of this study broadly match a number of previous studies whose results showed the prevalence of personality disorders in the general population to be 9-13%. However, there were some differences between previous studies on prevalence and this study. The present study found a notably higher prevalence of antisocial personality disorder and a much lower prevalence of histrionic and dependent personality disorders than previous studies. These differences could have been caused by methodological variants and the diagnostic criteria used such as which version of the DSM was utilised. The differences could also be a result of participant source, form of assessment, assessors experience and data collection methods. Notable strengths of the study were that the participants were obtained through a community sample and personally interviewed by psychologists who have a significant amount of experience in cross-examination. The limitations included the fact that not all subjects coul d be interviewed and that the sample size was not really large enough to pick up on very rare disorders. The results of other studies have been less conclusive. An American study examined the theory that personality traits stop transforming by the time an individual reaches the age of 30. One of the major strengths of this study was the sample size of 132,515. The subjects, aged 21-60, participated in a web-based Big Five personality measurement. The results of this study showed that qualities such as being agreeable and conscientious increased during adulthood up through middle age. The quality of being neurotic diminished for women but remained static for men.20 Both men and women decreased in openness after the age of 30, and while men increased in extraversion from 31 to 60, the same quality diminished in women in the same age range.21 While the sample size of this study was certainly impressive, one concern was that conducting the study over the internet might bias it toward younger subjects. Another concern was the cohort effect, since people of earlier generations might not engag e with psychological instruments with the same ease as those who are younger. Overall, the multiplicity in paradigms of change did not affirm either that personality does not change after 30 or that it does. The study concludes that the traits examined are complex in nature and subject to an array of developmental influences. Historical View The onset of the de-institutionalisation of mental health establishments has produced a number of benefits. There is now less public stigma placed upon sufferers of mental illness and their traits and presence in wider society has come a long way toward normalisation. Suffers of mental illness have become less isolated and enjoy greater freedoms, including the freedom to choose from a selection of services. From a governmental point of view, deinstitutionalisation has saved them an enormous amount of money. However, the responsibility for managing and caring for mental illness sufferers has been transferred from the institution to the local community, and specifically to carers. Carers are involved in every possible aspect of the lives of their charges, even to the extent that their role could be characterised as an informal social worker. But the burden of the role combined with the lack of training, education and support often results in the damage of the psychological health of th e carer, as well as strict limitations on their life outside the caring role. The striking impact of caring on the lives of carers and other factors led to the undertaking of research on the involvement of families in managing and treating mental illness. From this came solid evidence of the benefits of such involvement, and the needs of carers began to be recognised. In recent years services have been put in place to assure that the needs of carers are met, and education for carers has been pinpointed as the most beneficial service for carers and consumers. Carers need to be educated in order to feel equipped to perform their tasks effectively. Specifically, carers named a need for â€Å"education about mental disorders† and information about treatment options† as their most salient needs. These statements are reinforced by studies from various countries where carers named the same things as most important for their success. Historically, studies examining the impact of educational programmes for carers have come from two different hypotheses. The first is that the chances of a consumer recovering from a mental illness are augmented if an educated and informed family surrounds him or her. Such a family will have deeper knowledge and sympathy for the condition of the sufferer and will be equipped to manage challenging behaviours. The second hypothesis is that because of the implications of their role, carers have an inherent right to access to adequate services. They have a right to services that will enhance their individual welfare and their effectiveness as carers. Assigning a course of treatment to personality disorder has always been an inexact science. Personality disorder is particularly complex to treat because the prime method of treatment is not always apparent after a diagnosis has been arrived at. The type of treatment which will prove most effective for the patient differs from individual to individual. Case conceptualisations can be helpful in assessing the individuals issues, identifying areas of risk and determining proper treatment goals.24 There is an abundance of research about treating personality disorder, but the studies cannot always be relied upon due to their lack of sound methodology. While some forms of treatment for personality disorder can reduce relapses and facilitate recovery, there is no simple panacea for this ailment. Cognitive treatments including cognitive-behavioural approaches have produced some pleasing results with personality disorder patients, as have psychodynamic treatments. Diagnosis Individuals who suffer from personality disorder encounter several issues with their diagnoses. They may be diagnosed through the means of an interview, a self assessment questionnaire or other means. Clinical psychiatrists often diagnose patients through interviewing them with regard to the DSM or ICD categories. This method is slightly better for detecting the existence or not of a personality disorder, but shows low accuracy for particular types of disorder. Self-report questionnaires like the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire (PDQ-IV) and the Millon Clinical Multi-axial Inventory (MCMI) are also used to diagnose personality disorder. These questionnaires are considered imprecise because individuals tend to over-emphasise or under-emphasise the issues they are having. In addition to these methods of diagnosis, there are several semi-structured interview schedules to assist professionals. These schedules feature lists of questions that correlate to the DSM or ICD and the clinici an may then mark the patient and determine whether he or she has a disorder according to the criteria. Interview schedules have shown that they are slightly more reliable than other forms of diagnosis, but this success is only relative and the results are still much less valid than is needed. Really none of the diagnostic tools should be considered better than any of the others, for they are all faulty to the extent that they cannot be relied upon. There is a problematic absence of consensus regarding the reliability of diagnosing in general and the consistency of different diagnostic schemes. Part of the problem is that the explanations of personality disorders in the DSM and ICD feature a concoction of psychological traits and displayed behaviours, so that it becomes uncertain whether the diagnoses are attempting merely to pinpoint deviant actions or to identify traits whose presence is significant for determining personality disorder. The solidity of diagnoses for personality disorder is frequently questioned, and there are only a few disorders whose diagnoses are considered reliable. The diagnosis that can be made with the most certainty is antisocial personality disorder, because this problem can be identified by external actions that can be easily observed. Those who diagnose individuals with personality disorder are not always able to be precise in identifying which personality disorder they are dealing with, therefore m ultiple personality disorder diagnoses are common. Clinicians often find themselves confronting comorbidity, and prudent professionals test for the full scope of disorders. Comorbidity is quite common, with male legal psychopaths having an average of three disorders each. Women may have four.28 There is a great amount of interaction between the descriptors of the various types of personality disorder and so it is difficult to tell them apart. When dealing with multiple diagnoses, it is advisable to keep all disorders in mind when constructing a treatment regime, even if many of the features of the respective disorders overlap. The classification of disorders is also problematic, because the categories lack the quality of homogeneity present in reliable psychological categories of other types. Categories of psychological dysfunction work best when each class is different from others and common elements are contained within one class. This is not the case with personality disorders. For example, there are literally hundreds of ways to satisfy the criteria for borderline personality disorder, and so individuals with the same diagnosis may have utterly distinct behaviours, symptoms and needs. Axis I disorders feature frequently in those who suffer from personality disorder, particularly where there is substance abuse or depression. The classifications for personality disorder tend neither to be theoretically based, nor to stem from statistical research, which is presumably part of the reason that precise diagnoses are so elusive. The categories are so unreliable that abandoning the categories altogether and composing a new classification system is often proposed. While this may be the ideal way to correct the flaws, the time and effort already invested in the use of the present system is likely to ensure its continued existence. One approach to dealing with personality disorder is the trait approach. This approach states that a minimal amount of theories can illumine the majority of human behaviour. Observing the personality traits exhibited by an individual and placing them on a continuum from truly normal to extremely dysfunctional is more faithful to the structure of t he human psyche and tells clinicians more about the true nature of the dysfunction suffered by the patient. Currently, the most extensively developed trait theory relating to personality disorder is the theory of psychopathology. Treatment Cognitive-behavioural treatments (CBT) aimed at treating personality disorders have a tendency to take a broad approach. CBTs engage an array of behaviours, thoughts, preconceptions and internal emotional mechanisms. Many treatments are residential and are conducted with a group. They frequently include tenets of other methods such as psychodynamic therapy. Therefore it is an arduous task to pick out what, if any, elements are effective in a multi-dimensional approach so that they can be improved and repeated. Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a method of CBT focusing on female patients with borderline personality disorder. The goal of the therapy is to reduce or eliminate incidents of self-harm through group skills training. Group sessions address destructive thought patterns and social skills. Individual therapy can also be used. The outcomes for one study showed that women who were treated experienced reduced anger and self-destructive or suicidal thoughts. Their social skills improved and they required less psychiatric treatment. Arnold Lodge Regional Secure Unit has produced a treatment method aimed specifically at offenders with a personality disorder. The treatment programme centres on teaching patients socially acceptable mechanisms for problem solving. The patients work individually and with others and receive regular counselling. This regime is supplemented with services that are individually tailored to the needs of the individual, such as anger management sessions or substance abuse education. This form of treatment has been shown to reduce deficiencies in social functioning and self-control.32 While the initial studies are promising, long-term analysis will confirm or refute the true effectiveness of this type of treatment. Therapeutic communities, cognitive therapies and dynamic therapies may also be used to treat personality disorder. Therapeutic communities are tailored primarily for offenders and have produced promising results in terms of reduced recidivism and improved social integration. A study into the effectiveness of therapeutic community treatment of personality disorder explored whether this type of treatment improved the health of patients to the extent that the burden on Health Services eased. Several previous studies reported reductions in the use of psychiatric services after therapeutic community treatment. The previous studies were limited by the fact that they observed participants for one year only and lacked thorough follow-up. This study sought to fill the methodological gaps of the previous studies by tracking patients for years after treatment. They assessed the impact of treatment on Health Services by counting the number of admissions to hospital before and after treatment. Th e study found that therapeutic community treatment resulted in a statistically significant drop in in-patient admissions over the 3-year period. Those who were admitted to hospital tended to be the subjects who had the briefest experience of therapeutic community treatment. Another study involving therapeutic community treatment focused on individuals with severe personality disorder. The effect of p Personality Disorder Carer and Family Support Impact Personality Disorder Carer and Family Support Impact ARE PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL AND SUPPORT PROGRAMMES FOR FAMILY AND CARERS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING RELAPSES AND FACILITATING RECOVERY OF PEOPLE SUFFERING FROM PERSONALITY DISORDERS? ABSTRACT Background Carers and families of people suffering from personality disorder are in desperate need of support and services. Providing these services can reduce relapses and facilitate recovery in sufferers of personality disorder. The Research Question How can psycho-educational and support programmes for carers and families of those with personality disorder improve their recovery? Methodology The results of this study were obtained through a systematic literature review. Results Diagnosis and treatment of personality disorder are still complex and often confusing issues, even for professionals. Still, treatment can produce recovery and this recovery can be expedited if carers and families are provided with programmes to equip them to effectively face the challenges that personality disorder presents. Conclusions Providing psycho-educational and support programmes makes carers more effective and can help treat personality disorder. Social Workers can help to bridge a gap in the services that is adversely affecting the treatment outcomes of sufferers and hence placing greater strain on the Health System than is necessary. Contextualisation The carers and families of individuals suffering from personality disorders are an underserved population. Considerable strain is placed upon them and their loved ones and they are often at a loss as to how to effectively perform their duties and assist the recovery of those they care for. If more psycho-educational and support programmes for carers and families were provided, it is possible that treatment for personality disorder could be improved. Personality disorders can be defined as: â€Å". . . psychiatric conditions relating to functional impairment, or psychological distress resulting from inflexible and maladaptive personality traits.†1 Personality disorders are explained in the two most prominent classification schemes, the DSM-IV, where personality disorders can be found in Axis II, and the ICD-10. The definitions in these diagnostic classification systems are much the same. Defining ‘severe personality disorder has proved problematic for experts, who have yet to establish a generally accepted definition. The suggestion of the Royal College of Psychiatrists (1999) that severe personality disorder is marked by extreme societal disturbance and at least one extreme personality disorder has provided some guidance.2 Alternatively, having two severe disorders could mean that the sufferer has one disorder that expresses itself in more than one extreme way, or could simply indicate one deeply disturbing disorder. One study graded the severity of personality disorder on 163 subjects and found that the patients whose personality disorder was described as ‘complex demonstrated the greatest number of symptoms and recovered the least. Personality disorder carers are people who support a person who suffers from any form of personality disorder, whether they are relatives, friends or partners. Often, carers give sufferers emotional and financial support and may even act as informal social workers. Previous studies have shown that carers of people with personality disorder benefit from psycho-educational and support programmes. Psycho-educational programmes are educational programmes that contain an element of counselling or therapeutic activity for the family. The main aim of these programmes is to minimise the strain experienced by families and carers of people with mental illnesses, here personality disorder. Psycho-educational and counselling programmes exist ultimately to facilitate recovery and reduce relapses; indeed, the success of programmes is usually measured by examining relapse rates. Programmes attempt to provide adequate support, information, signposting to appropriate resources, advocacy and respite for carers. They also coach carers to increase their problem solving abilities, improve their communication and help them construct their own support networks. Support programmes for carers of people with a mental illness attempt to support the contribution that carers make to the lives of those they care for. They work toward advances in policy that will augment the services that satisfy carer requirements. Support programmes prompt dialogue between members of the government and carers, as well as encouraging carer involvement in the creation and delivery of carer and patient services. Further, support services connect carers with agencies to assist them in their role and facilitate modes of best practice in aiding carers. The Research Question This literature review examines a number of studies on personality disorder, its effect on carers and issues connected with diagnosis and treatment in an attempt to determine whether psycho-educational and support programmes for family and carers are effective in reducing relapses and facilitating recovery of people suffering from personality disorders. If social workers are to work effectively with this client base, they must put aside antiquated beliefs that personality disorder cases are hopeless and that those who suffer from personality disorder never get better. This study reveals that one of the greatest challenges to carers and families is obtaining the support they need and the services they are entitled to, and Social Workers can be instrumental in bridging gaps in the Mental Health system. Methodology This dissertation undertakes a systematic literature review of health care and psychological literature to address key issues in the support of carers of people suffering from personality disorders. Several different studies and a range of approaches were examined. Although the number and breadth of studies was a strength of the review, the variety of approaches made it challenging to compare the overall merits of one study against another. The literature was obtained through a variety of means. Google searches, journal articles, working group reports, service provider reports and academic papers were used. The research methods that appear in the utilised material included telephone interviews, questionnaires and surveys, face-to-face interviews and meta-analysis. Some were literature reviews themselves and some simply reported on the outcomes when a group of treated individuals was observed. Of the studies that involved observation of a group, very few included a control group in the study so methodological rigour was not as great as it could have been. Neither is it certain that studies where self-reporting was used are as empirically reliable as one would like, as sufferers of personality disorder tend to over- or under-report their symptoms . Some of the studies that were conducted recently showed positive outcomes, but the long-term follow-up for the same groups may make the figures less significant. Even where there has been longterm follow-up, some of those who took part in the initial study may not be included because of death, inability or unwillingness to participate, or inability to be located. The methodological rigour of the studies is further complicated by the fact that the process of diagnosis and treatment of personality disorder is fraught with complexities. The categories for personality disorder are somewhat defined by behaviours and are not theoretically based or grounded in common mechanisms of the disorder. The actions and symptoms of patients are so extremely varied that both diagnosis and treatment are difficult to present, much less to assess. Yet just because a comprehensive catalogue of truths about personality disorder cannot be presented does not mean that no reliable statements can be made. The evidence that is presented here is solid enough to make general assertions regarding the affects of carer support on patients based upon the evidence, and that is what it intends to do. Assessing the impact of support and education for carers upon the sufferers of personality disorder themselves proved more challenging than, for example, assessing the impact of treatment on sufferers, for which there is abundant literature. Still, the impact of psycho-educational and support programmes on consumers has been assessed and outcomes observed. Additionally, the evidence for the improvement of the lives of carers and the quality of care they give their charges is strong, and this fact bolsters the hypothesis that improved care for carers improves the mental health of those for whom they care. These conclusions are definitely linked, especially given the statistics that show that improvement for personality disorder takes place over a long period of time and is facilitated by positive interpersonal relationships with people who are equipped to deal with the symptoms that people with personality disorder exhibit. The presence of positive relationships with carers who are tr ained, educated and supported will assuredly improve the ‘treatment conditions for those with personality disorder. In narrowing the scope of the literature to be included in the study, several factors had to be noted. Some of the literature was so grounded in certain programmes for certain countries that many sections were not transferable to this review. For example, the results of the Network for Carers (2004) report were based upon specific programmes offered in Australia, so some information had to be excluded. However, this document was very helpful in establishing general facts about the needs of carers and the impact of programmes upon their ability to care for sufferers. It was also a thorough exposition of the opinions of carers,through which their voice was clearly heard. There were also other limitations regarding the particular demographic studied. The NHS National Programme on Forensic Mental Health Research and Development Expert Paper on Personality Disorders primarily assessed offenders with personality disorder and not merely members of the wider public suffering from the disorde r. Because of this, significant sections of the material had to be ignored. Still, this paper was useful in understanding the complexities of treatment and diagnosis of personality disorder, and provided definitions for contextualisation. In evaluating the quality of the data, the analytical tool Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) was used to assist in making sense of the evidence. This tool is advantageous to those who are strangers to qualitative research, assessing the merits of a source with regard to rigour, credibility and relevance.CASP initially asks two screening questions, the first addressing research aims and significance. The second screening question considers whether the research interprets subjective experiences of participants.Answering these two questions with a ‘yes then leads to eight more questions covering issues such as recruitment strategies, collection of data and ethical issues. In a literature review there are several ethical issues that must be considered, especially when dealing with a vulnerable population such as sufferers of mental illness. For each study used in the review it was necessary to consider whether ethical standards were maintained throughout the study, includi ng the manner in which consent was obtained and the way that confidentiality was upheld. Another ethical consideration is the handling of the outcomes of the study with the participants after the study.9 In the data observed here, it is not always explicit that consent was obtained but is often implied. Eliciting feedback from carers carries implied consent even if consent was not explicit, for obviously no individual would be forced to comment against his or her will. Confidentiality is maintained through omitting names and keeping the results impersonal. Yet the information given for studies is in its final and often abbreviated form, and the background work is not always documented comprehensively enough to ascertain whether all ethical considerations have been taken into account. One ethical consideration that is not always considered is the treatment of ethnic minorities in research projects, especially those for whom English is not their first language. The wording of questions and the criteria by which outcomes are judged is often tainted by cultural bias for those being assessed outside their native surroundings. It is practically impossible to remedy this, because part of the methodological rigour of the study depends upon all participants being treated and assessed in the same way. Differentiation on the basis of cultural differences would compromise the consistency of the study, but the impact of cultural factors is most certainly felt by those of foreign origin. Discussion of Findings Traits The traits exhibited by sufferers of personality disorder differ immensely because of the wide scope of the disorder. Examples of traits range from anxiety, narcissism and compulsivity to defiance, abnormal attachments and avoidance of social situations. Sufferers may demonstrate an arrogant interpersonal style, or may show extreme submissiveness. Personality disorders are linked with negative results in the wider population such as marital breakdown, criminal actions and professional difficulties.The anomalies of personality disorder are apparent in the thought patters, expressions and levels of self-control of sufferers. The patient will display abnormalities in the way that he or she interacts with others which will appear in a range of circumstances. There are various types of personality disorders, and each has its own banners of dysfunction. It has been recognised that the kinds of personality disorders covered in DSM and ICD are a small cluster when contrasted with the array o f personality impairments that can be identified in large configurations of people.11 Personality disorders can be divided into three clusters, A-C. In the first cluster disorders relating to paranoia and schizophrenia are found. Cluster B includes antisocial and narcissistic disorders, and Cluster C focuses on avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Prevalence It is estimated that between 6% and 15% of the population have one or more personality disorders of some kind—different studies produce different results.13 The goal of one study was to estimate the prevalence of personality disorders in a local sample and discern the most common demographic groups therein. The frequency of the DSM and ICD personality disorders and the interactions between disorder clusters and demographic qualities was assessed in a local sample of 742 participants between the ages of 34 and 94 over two years.14 The results showed that the overall prevalence of DSM-IV personality disorders was approximately 9%. Among the disorders, antisocial personality disorder was the most common and appeared in almost 5% of those assessed. Dependent personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorders were rare. The prevalence of many of the individual disorders was only 1% to 2%. For ICD-10 disorders, the overall presence in the surveyed group was 7%. Again, the prevalence for individual disorders was 1% to 2%. The most common disorder in for the ICD disorders was dissocial personality disorder at 3%. Dependent personality disorder was, again, very rare. Who is affected? Studies dedicated to uncovering the risk factors for personality disorder produced a variety of results. Prominent factors that may lead to a personality disorder include having a parent who is involved in or has been convicted of a crime, having a parent with deficient parenting abilities and being part of a large family. Factors such as low intelligence also feature in the list of risk factors. However, this study and studies that are similar raise certain issues about the nature of judging which factors should be included as risk factors for personality disorder. These sorts of factors could be criticised for having prejudicial antecedent assumptions regarding what it means to be a functioning human being. It is likely that people from lower socio-economic classes will have a tendency to fit these categories more than their middle- or upper class counterparts.Care should be taken in describing risk factors to ensure the language used is not biased by class. In the study mentioned above, several demographic characteristics were assessed with regard to prevalence of personality disorder. The outcomes demonstrated that Cluster A disorders were more common in males than in females. Cluster A disorders were also more prevalent in participants who were divorced or separated than those who were married or widowed. Subjects who had never been married were the most susceptible sub-group of all. In the Cluster B category, men were again more prone to having a personality disorder than women. Cluster B disorders were most common in the youngest age range surveyed and least common in the oldest range. Further, this cluster was most prevalent in participants who lacked a high school diploma and was least prevalent in participants who graduated from high school and continued their education afterwards. The odds of having one of these disorders decreased approximately 6% for each year an individual aged. One possible explanation for the increase of prevalence of disorder with age could be that people of more mature generations are less likely to have, know about or report symptoms of personality disorder. The prevalence of Cluster C disorders was most closely related to marital status, again showing that participants who had never been married were most likely to have one of these disorders. The likelihood of having a Cluster C disorder was almost 7 times greater in those never married when contrasted with those who were married or widowed. The results of this study broadly match a number of previous studies whose results showed the prevalence of personality disorders in the general population to be 9-13%. However, there were some differences between previous studies on prevalence and this study. The present study found a notably higher prevalence of antisocial personality disorder and a much lower prevalence of histrionic and dependent personality disorders than previous studies. These differences could have been caused by methodological variants and the diagnostic criteria used such as which version of the DSM was utilised. The differences could also be a result of participant source, form of assessment, assessors experience and data collection methods. Notable strengths of the study were that the participants were obtained through a community sample and personally interviewed by psychologists who have a significant amount of experience in cross-examination. The limitations included the fact that not all subjects coul d be interviewed and that the sample size was not really large enough to pick up on very rare disorders. The results of other studies have been less conclusive. An American study examined the theory that personality traits stop transforming by the time an individual reaches the age of 30. One of the major strengths of this study was the sample size of 132,515. The subjects, aged 21-60, participated in a web-based Big Five personality measurement. The results of this study showed that qualities such as being agreeable and conscientious increased during adulthood up through middle age. The quality of being neurotic diminished for women but remained static for men.20 Both men and women decreased in openness after the age of 30, and while men increased in extraversion from 31 to 60, the same quality diminished in women in the same age range.21 While the sample size of this study was certainly impressive, one concern was that conducting the study over the internet might bias it toward younger subjects. Another concern was the cohort effect, since people of earlier generations might not engag e with psychological instruments with the same ease as those who are younger. Overall, the multiplicity in paradigms of change did not affirm either that personality does not change after 30 or that it does. The study concludes that the traits examined are complex in nature and subject to an array of developmental influences. Historical View The onset of the de-institutionalisation of mental health establishments has produced a number of benefits. There is now less public stigma placed upon sufferers of mental illness and their traits and presence in wider society has come a long way toward normalisation. Suffers of mental illness have become less isolated and enjoy greater freedoms, including the freedom to choose from a selection of services. From a governmental point of view, deinstitutionalisation has saved them an enormous amount of money. However, the responsibility for managing and caring for mental illness sufferers has been transferred from the institution to the local community, and specifically to carers. Carers are involved in every possible aspect of the lives of their charges, even to the extent that their role could be characterised as an informal social worker. But the burden of the role combined with the lack of training, education and support often results in the damage of the psychological health of th e carer, as well as strict limitations on their life outside the caring role. The striking impact of caring on the lives of carers and other factors led to the undertaking of research on the involvement of families in managing and treating mental illness. From this came solid evidence of the benefits of such involvement, and the needs of carers began to be recognised. In recent years services have been put in place to assure that the needs of carers are met, and education for carers has been pinpointed as the most beneficial service for carers and consumers. Carers need to be educated in order to feel equipped to perform their tasks effectively. Specifically, carers named a need for â€Å"education about mental disorders† and information about treatment options† as their most salient needs. These statements are reinforced by studies from various countries where carers named the same things as most important for their success. Historically, studies examining the impact of educational programmes for carers have come from two different hypotheses. The first is that the chances of a consumer recovering from a mental illness are augmented if an educated and informed family surrounds him or her. Such a family will have deeper knowledge and sympathy for the condition of the sufferer and will be equipped to manage challenging behaviours. The second hypothesis is that because of the implications of their role, carers have an inherent right to access to adequate services. They have a right to services that will enhance their individual welfare and their effectiveness as carers. Assigning a course of treatment to personality disorder has always been an inexact science. Personality disorder is particularly complex to treat because the prime method of treatment is not always apparent after a diagnosis has been arrived at. The type of treatment which will prove most effective for the patient differs from individual to individual. Case conceptualisations can be helpful in assessing the individuals issues, identifying areas of risk and determining proper treatment goals.24 There is an abundance of research about treating personality disorder, but the studies cannot always be relied upon due to their lack of sound methodology. While some forms of treatment for personality disorder can reduce relapses and facilitate recovery, there is no simple panacea for this ailment. Cognitive treatments including cognitive-behavioural approaches have produced some pleasing results with personality disorder patients, as have psychodynamic treatments. Diagnosis Individuals who suffer from personality disorder encounter several issues with their diagnoses. They may be diagnosed through the means of an interview, a self assessment questionnaire or other means. Clinical psychiatrists often diagnose patients through interviewing them with regard to the DSM or ICD categories. This method is slightly better for detecting the existence or not of a personality disorder, but shows low accuracy for particular types of disorder. Self-report questionnaires like the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire (PDQ-IV) and the Millon Clinical Multi-axial Inventory (MCMI) are also used to diagnose personality disorder. These questionnaires are considered imprecise because individuals tend to over-emphasise or under-emphasise the issues they are having. In addition to these methods of diagnosis, there are several semi-structured interview schedules to assist professionals. These schedules feature lists of questions that correlate to the DSM or ICD and the clinici an may then mark the patient and determine whether he or she has a disorder according to the criteria. Interview schedules have shown that they are slightly more reliable than other forms of diagnosis, but this success is only relative and the results are still much less valid than is needed. Really none of the diagnostic tools should be considered better than any of the others, for they are all faulty to the extent that they cannot be relied upon. There is a problematic absence of consensus regarding the reliability of diagnosing in general and the consistency of different diagnostic schemes. Part of the problem is that the explanations of personality disorders in the DSM and ICD feature a concoction of psychological traits and displayed behaviours, so that it becomes uncertain whether the diagnoses are attempting merely to pinpoint deviant actions or to identify traits whose presence is significant for determining personality disorder. The solidity of diagnoses for personality disorder is frequently questioned, and there are only a few disorders whose diagnoses are considered reliable. The diagnosis that can be made with the most certainty is antisocial personality disorder, because this problem can be identified by external actions that can be easily observed. Those who diagnose individuals with personality disorder are not always able to be precise in identifying which personality disorder they are dealing with, therefore m ultiple personality disorder diagnoses are common. Clinicians often find themselves confronting comorbidity, and prudent professionals test for the full scope of disorders. Comorbidity is quite common, with male legal psychopaths having an average of three disorders each. Women may have four.28 There is a great amount of interaction between the descriptors of the various types of personality disorder and so it is difficult to tell them apart. When dealing with multiple diagnoses, it is advisable to keep all disorders in mind when constructing a treatment regime, even if many of the features of the respective disorders overlap. The classification of disorders is also problematic, because the categories lack the quality of homogeneity present in reliable psychological categories of other types. Categories of psychological dysfunction work best when each class is different from others and common elements are contained within one class. This is not the case with personality disorders. For example, there are literally hundreds of ways to satisfy the criteria for borderline personality disorder, and so individuals with the same diagnosis may have utterly distinct behaviours, symptoms and needs. Axis I disorders feature frequently in those who suffer from personality disorder, particularly where there is substance abuse or depression. The classifications for personality disorder tend neither to be theoretically based, nor to stem from statistical research, which is presumably part of the reason that precise diagnoses are so elusive. The categories are so unreliable that abandoning the categories altogether and composing a new classification system is often proposed. While this may be the ideal way to correct the flaws, the time and effort already invested in the use of the present system is likely to ensure its continued existence. One approach to dealing with personality disorder is the trait approach. This approach states that a minimal amount of theories can illumine the majority of human behaviour. Observing the personality traits exhibited by an individual and placing them on a continuum from truly normal to extremely dysfunctional is more faithful to the structure of t he human psyche and tells clinicians more about the true nature of the dysfunction suffered by the patient. Currently, the most extensively developed trait theory relating to personality disorder is the theory of psychopathology. Treatment Cognitive-behavioural treatments (CBT) aimed at treating personality disorders have a tendency to take a broad approach. CBTs engage an array of behaviours, thoughts, preconceptions and internal emotional mechanisms. Many treatments are residential and are conducted with a group. They frequently include tenets of other methods such as psychodynamic therapy. Therefore it is an arduous task to pick out what, if any, elements are effective in a multi-dimensional approach so that they can be improved and repeated. Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a method of CBT focusing on female patients with borderline personality disorder. The goal of the therapy is to reduce or eliminate incidents of self-harm through group skills training. Group sessions address destructive thought patterns and social skills. Individual therapy can also be used. The outcomes for one study showed that women who were treated experienced reduced anger and self-destructive or suicidal thoughts. Their social skills improved and they required less psychiatric treatment. Arnold Lodge Regional Secure Unit has produced a treatment method aimed specifically at offenders with a personality disorder. The treatment programme centres on teaching patients socially acceptable mechanisms for problem solving. The patients work individually and with others and receive regular counselling. This regime is supplemented with services that are individually tailored to the needs of the individual, such as anger management sessions or substance abuse education. This form of treatment has been shown to reduce deficiencies in social functioning and self-control.32 While the initial studies are promising, long-term analysis will confirm or refute the true effectiveness of this type of treatment. Therapeutic communities, cognitive therapies and dynamic therapies may also be used to treat personality disorder. Therapeutic communities are tailored primarily for offenders and have produced promising results in terms of reduced recidivism and improved social integration. A study into the effectiveness of therapeutic community treatment of personality disorder explored whether this type of treatment improved the health of patients to the extent that the burden on Health Services eased. Several previous studies reported reductions in the use of psychiatric services after therapeutic community treatment. The previous studies were limited by the fact that they observed participants for one year only and lacked thorough follow-up. This study sought to fill the methodological gaps of the previous studies by tracking patients for years after treatment. They assessed the impact of treatment on Health Services by counting the number of admissions to hospital before and after treatment. Th e study found that therapeutic community treatment resulted in a statistically significant drop in in-patient admissions over the 3-year period. Those who were admitted to hospital tended to be the subjects who had the briefest experience of therapeutic community treatment. Another study involving therapeutic community treatment focused on individuals with severe personality disorder. The effect of p